Formation and geology, early Amerindians, the colonial era, and post-independence Barbados.
Barbados is an island nation located in the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies, in the Caribbean region of North America. Known for its white sandy beaches, clear waters and unique Bajan culture, the island stretches approximately 21 miles (34 kilometres) from north to south and 14 miles (23 kilometers) from east to west.
Barbados is primarily composed of coral limestone, formed from the accumulation of marine organisms over millions of years and influenced by tectonic forces.
The island sits on an accretionary prism, where sediments from the South American Plate are scraped off and accumulate on the Caribbean Plate. This process, known as subduction, is a key driver behind the continuous uplift of Barbados. The island is still actively rising, with estimates suggesting an uplift rate of about 0.03 to 0.04 centimetres per year. This uplift has significant implications for the island's topography and geological features, including the formation of cliffs and terraces.
The coral limestone or "coral cap" of Barbados is one of the thickest in the world, with some areas reaching up to 300 metres (984 feet) in thickness. This limestone has been uplifted, creating the high cliffs along the eastern coast, like those found near the village of Bathsheba. These cliffs are not just a scenic feature but also a testament to the ongoing tectonic activity.
Beneath the coral cap, older geological layers include oceanic crust, parts of which are exposed and offer insights into deep-sea geology. An area of Barbados called the Scotland District features older volcanic and sedimentary rocks, contrasting with the coral limestone elsewhere on the island. This area is unique as it showcases some of the island's pre-late Miocene geological history, with rock formations dating back tens of millions of years.
The limestone geology has led to the formation of numerous caves and sinkholes, such as Harrison's Cave, which is a major tourist attraction known for its stalactites, stalagmites and underground streams. The continuous uplift also influences the development of these cave systems and sinkholes, as water drainage patterns change, potentially leading to new cave formations or altering existing ones.
Being at a plate boundary, Barbados experiences seismic activity, although not as intense as other Caribbean islands. This activity contributes to the island's ongoing geological evolution. Earthquakes here are generally minor but can cause changes in the landscape over time, including the uplift process. The seismic events occasionally lead to minor landslides or further shaping of the coastlines.
The geological activity has also influenced the island's hydrology, with the limestone acting as an aquifer, storing considerable amounts of fresh water which is important for the island's water supply. The interaction between fresh and saline water, due to sea-level changes and uplift, creates unique underground water systems.
The earliest known inhabitants of Barbados were the Amerindians. The Saladoid people, ancestors of the Arawaks, are believed to have arrived around 1600 BC from South America. They were followed by the Arawaks, who established a more settled agricultural society, farming crops like cassava and maize.
Around 1200 AD, the Caribs, known for their warrior culture, migrated from the South American mainland, displacing or absorbing the Arawaks. The Caribs left fewer archaeological traces but are known for their sophisticated canoes and fishing techniques.
Various artifacts like pottery, tools and ceremonial items have been found. The Chancery Lane site in the parish of Christ Church is one of the most significant archaeological finds, revealing detailed insights into Amerindian life.
Burial sites provide evidence of their social structures and religious practices, with some graves containing grave goods like beads and tools.
The Amerindians altered the landscape through agriculture and fishing, although their impact was minimal compared to later European changes. The coastal areas and coral reefs were central to their diet, with shell middens/dumps showing their reliance on marine life.
The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century marked the beginning of the end for the Amerindian presence in Barbados. By the time of the early English settlement in 1627, the Amerindians were no longer present in Barbados, likely having migrated to other islands beforehand, leaving behind a rich but often overlooked history.
The first Europeans to discover the island were the Portuguese in the 16th century, but it was the English that settled the island in 1627 and claimed it for the English Crown, with Barbados becoming the first permanent colony of the former Kingdom of England in the Caribbean.
The introduction of sugarcane in the 1640s dramatically altered Barbados, transforming it into one of the world's leading sugar producers. Before sugarcane became the dominant crop, early settlers experimented with various others, including tobacco, cotton and indigo. However, these initial ventures proved less profitable or sustainable in the long-term due to market saturation and soil quality issues.
Initially, tobacco was the primary crop due to its high demand in Europe, but competition from other colonies like Virginia, where tobacco was of a higher quality, led to its decline on the island. Cotton and indigo were also tried, but they did not provide the economic boom that sugarcane would later bring. The lack of labour and suitable land for large-scale cultivation further limited their success.
In the early years, the labour force in Barbados was predominantly composed of English, Irish and Scottish indentured labourers. Some were willing labourers seeking opportunities in the New World, while others were sent under less voluntary circumstances. For example, some servants were often indentured due to their status as enemies of the Crown.
During the English Civil War and the subsequent Interregnum between 1649 and 1660 (when the Kingdom of England became an unstable republic known as the Commonwealth of England, after the execution of His late Majesty King Charles I), Barbados remained loyal to the English monarchy. The island's allegiance to the English Crown was a significant political stance that influenced its relationship with the Commonwealth (not to be confused with the Commonwealth of Nations, which is a voluntary association of 56 sovereign nations, most of whom have historical ties to the former British Empire).
After the execution of His late Majesty King Charles I, Barbados declared his exiled son, His late Majesty King Charles II, as its lawful King, thereby resisting the Commonwealth's authority. This loyalty meant that while England was under republican rule, Barbados was effectively a royalist stronghold in the Caribbean, which led to tensions, but also a degree of autonomy from the policies of the Commonwealth.
In response to the defiance of colonial administrators in Barbados, the Commonwealth attempted to assert control over the island by blockading it between 1651 and 1652. This blockade was aimed at forcing the island to submit to Commonwealth rule by cutting off trade, which was vital to the island's economy.
After the Battle of Worcester in 1651, many Scottish soldiers supporting the royalist cause were captured and transported to Barbados. These prisoners, seen as enemies of the Commonwealth, were sent as indentured servants.
The Commonwealth also undertook campaigns in Ireland to bring it under Commonwealth rule, which led to the transportation of numerous Irish Catholics to Barbados who were often political prisoners or those displaced by land confiscations.
In 1652, the Commonwealth lifted the blockade on Barbados after the island surrendered to its rule. The Interregnum continued until 1660, when the Kingdom of England was restored under the reign of His late Majesty King Charles II, marking the end of the unstable Commonwealth.
Indentured servants, including prisoners, were bound by contracts to serve for a term, typically 5 to 7 years, in return for their passage, sustenance and eventual "freedom dues", which could be land or goods. This system was crucial in the early development of the island's plantation economy before the massive shift to African slavery for sugarcane production. However, the political dynamics of the Interregnum, especially the Commonwealth's blockade, added a layer of complexity to who was sent to Barbados, reflecting the interplay between loyalty, punishment and economic necessity.
As sugarcane cultivation took hold, the demand for labour soared beyond what indentured servitude could supply. The harsh conditions and high mortality rates on sugarcane plantations made indentured servitude less appealing, leading to a shift towards African slave labour.
African kingdoms like the Dahomey, Asante, and the Kingdom of Kongo were deeply involved in capturing fellow Africans and selling them as slaves, often through warfare and village raids. Other significant participants included the Oyo Empire, which used inter-tribal warfare to supply the trade, and the Kingdom of Whydah, a major slave export hub. The Aro Confederacy in Nigeria, with its control over the Arochukwu oracle, and the Islamic states of Futa Jallon and Futa Toro, which raided non-Muslim neighbours, were also heavily involved. These activities reshaped African politics, economics and even demographics as some groups used the trade to consolidate power.
European powers established trading forts along the African coast, engaging in a trade that was both economically lucrative and politically advantageous. They traded manufactured goods for slaves, who had to endure the brutal Middle Passage to the Americas.
The trade was not unilateral; there was a significant level of negotiation and diplomacy. African elites used the trade to strengthen their positions, while Europeans relied on local knowledge and cooperation to access the enslaved. This mutual dependency led to a sophisticated network of trade routes, forts and alliances across both continents.
By the 1640s, Barbados had become a focal point for the Atlantic slave trade, with enslaved people becoming the primary labour force for sugarcane plantations, imported primarily from regions like the former Gold Coast (part of present-day Republic of Ghana), Bight of Biafra and Angola, which became the backbone of the island's sugar economy. The demand for labour was so high that Barbados became one of the earliest and most significant destinations in the Atlantic slave trade, shaping its society and economy profoundly. This transition not only fueled the island's economy, but also established a long-lasting social structure based on race and labour exploitation.
Between 1627 and 1807, approximately 493,000 enslaved people were sold by African kingdoms to British merchants and transported to Barbados from the West Coast of Africa. Historical studies suggest that between 10% to 20% of those onboard died during the Middle Passage to the Americas. Therefore, it is estimated that between 49,300 and 98,600 people died en route to Barbados.
Towards the end of the Age of Enlightenment during the 18th and 19th century, attitudes towards the slave trade was changing in Britain. It was increasingly being seen as an immoral practice in violation of the laws of God. While some people in Barbados supported abolition, many resisted, as the island's economy was deeply intertwined with slavery. In 1807, the British Parliament passed the Slave Trade Act, which abolished the slave trade, thereby making the importation of new slaves unlawful. However, the institution of slavery was not abolished until 1833, when the British Parliament passed the Slavery Abolition Act, which came into effect on August 1st, 1834, but a four-year "apprenticeship" period applied, where former slaves were still bound to work for their former owners. Full emancipation came on August 1st, 1838, ending the transition period.
In 1808, the West Africa Squadron was established by the British Royal Navy following the passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807, whose role was to enforce the Act by patrolling the West African coast to intercept and suppress the ongoing Atlantic slave trade. In particular, they were charged with actively thwarting the operations of slave ships by capturing them, liberating the enslaved on board, and deterring future slave trading activities.
The West Africa Squadron played an important role in the suppression of the Atlantic slave trade. Between 1808 and 1860, the Squadron captured approximately 1,600 slave ships and liberated around 150,000 Africans. Initially, its operations focused on intercepting ships from various nations still engaged in the slave trade, such as Spain, Portugal, Brazil and the United States. However, as part of the broader "Pax Britannica" doctrine (a term used to describe the period of relative world peace due to global British dominance from 1815 until the early 20th century), the Squadron became more aggressive in its approach, especially from the 1840s. They began boarding foreign ships more assertively, often without prior diplomatic consent, to enforce anti-slavery treaties. This increased aggression aimed not only to capture ships, but also to deter potential slavers by making the Atlantic slave trade economically unviable because of the overwhelming British naval presence in the Atlantic Ocean.
The work of the West African Squadron came at a significant cost to British sailors: it's estimated that up to 17,000 sailors died between 1830 and 1865, either in action or from disease. Among the ships lost was the ten-gun sloop HMS Waterwitch, which spent 21 years hunting down slave ships until one of them sank her in 1861.
It is estimated that the British spent the modern day equivalent of USD $65 billion to end slavery; with USD $43 billion spent to suppress the Atlantic slave trade (including efforts to enforce abolition within the British colonies after 1833), and controversially, USD $22 billion to compensate former slave owners.
Barbados has one of the oldest legislative assemblies in the New World, being first established in 1639. For most of the colonial period, eligibility to vote in elections was restricted to land owners or those who held property of a certain value. This was reflective of the English system at the time where suffrage was tied to property ownership, ensuring that only those with a "stake" in society could vote, thus excluding most of the non-property-owning population, which included the enslaved, most indentured servants, and later, the majority of former slaves.
In 1831, there were some minor adjustments in the wake of emancipation discussions, where the property requirement was somewhat liberalised.
After slavery was abolished, there was some discussion about extending voting rights, but significant changes were slow. For instance, the requirement to own a certain amount of property or income was still in place, effectively excluding many freed Africans from the political process unless they managed to acquire property.
Following the labour unrest between 1934 and 1939 across the British West Indies, including Barbados, the West India Royal Commission was set up to investigate the causes of these disturbances and had recommended changes, but they were more about labour rights than voting rights at the time. However, the pressure for political reform started to build. In the late 1940s, there were moves towards considering broader suffrage, but it wasn't until the post-war period, with the global push for decolonisation and democratisation, that real change began.
In 1951, the first general election was held under universal suffrage. This election allowed all adults aged 21 and over, regardless of property ownership, to vote.
In 1954, a ministerial form of government was introduced in Barbados, with locally-elected officials taking more control over internal affairs.
In 1961, Barbados gained full internal self-government, giving the island more autonomy in its domestic affairs. The Right Excellent Errol Barrow PC QC became the first Premier of Barbados, leading the island towards independence.
In 1964, the voting age was lowered to 18, further expanding the electorate.
In 1966, Barbados gained independence from the United Kingdom on November 30th, becoming a parliamentary democracy within the Commonwealth of Nations with Her late Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, as the Barbadian Head of State.
In 2021, Barbados transitioned from a constitutional monarchy to a parliamentary republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, with the former and last Governor General of Barbados, Her Excellency, The Most Honourable Dame Sandra Mason FB GCMG DA SC, becoming the first President of Barbados.
Since independence, Barbados has developed a stable economy, moving away from sugarcane to focus on tourism, manufacturing and financial services. The island is known for its high literacy rates and has one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean.
Barbados is well known for its stunning beaches, but the lush countryside and tropical forests might be one of the island's best kept secrets of all.
The Barbadian countryside is a tapestry of rolling hills and flat plains dotted with sugarcane fields, which, although not as economically dominant as in the past, still paints the landscape with its green hues. Rural areas like the parishes of St. George and St. Joseph offer a glimpse into a more traditional way of life, with small villages, chattel houses and local agriculture that includes not just sugarcane but also vegetables, fruits and livestock farming.
While not vast, Barbados also has areas of dense tropical forest, particularly in the Scotland District, where the landscape is more rugged due to its older geology, showcasing remnants of tropical dry forests with trees like the mahogany, acacia and the bearded fig (ficus citrifolia). It is said that the profusion of the bearded fig tree is the reason the Portugese named the island "Los Barbados", which means "The Bearded Ones". These forests are home to a variety of bird species, including the colourful green-throated Carib hummingbird and the native Barbados bullfinch (loxigilla barbadensis), and provides opportunities for hiking and nature observation. The Barbados bullfinch is both native and endemic to the island, found only in Barbados.